Healthy Self-Esteem

If you have a positive body image, you probably like and accept yourself the way you are. This healthy attitude allows you to explore other aspects of growing up, such as developing good friendships, growing more independent from your parents, and challenging yourself physically and mentally. Developing these parts of yourself can help boost your self-esteem.

A positive, optimistic attitude can help people develop strong self-esteem — for example, saying, "Hey, I'm human" instead of "Wow, I'm such a loser" when you've made a mistake, or not blaming others when things don't go as expected.

Knowing what makes you happy and how to meet your goals can help you feel capable, strong, and in control of your life. A positive attitude and a healthy lifestyle (such as exercising and eating right) are a great combination for building good self-esteem.
Tips for Improving Your Body Image

Some people think they need to change how they look or act to feel good about themselves. But actually all you need to do is change the way you see your body and how you think about yourself.

The first thing to do is recognize that your body is your own, no matter what shape, size, or color it comes in. If you're very worried about your weight or size, check with your doctor to verify that things are OK. But it's no one's business but your own what your body is like — ultimately, you have to be happy with yourself.

Next, identify which aspects of your appearance you can realistically change and which you can't. Everyone (even the most perfect-seeming celeb) has things about themselves that they can't change and need to accept — like their height, for example, or their shoe size.

If there are things about yourself that you want to change and can (such as how fit you are), do this by making goals for yourself. For example, if you want to get fit, make a plan to exercise every day and eat nutritious foods. Then keep track of your progress until you reach your goal. Meeting a challenge you set for yourself is a great way to boost self-esteem!

When you hear negative comments coming from within yourself, tell yourself to stop. Try building your self-esteem by giving yourself three compliments every day. While you're at it, every evening list three things in your day that really gave you pleasure. It can be anything from the way the sun felt on your face, the sound of your favorite band, or the way someone laughed at your jokes. By focusing on the good things you do and the positive aspects of your life, you can change how you feel about yourself.

Why Are Self-Esteem and Body Image Important?

Self-esteem is all about how much people value themselves, the pride they feel in themselves, and how worthwhile they feel. Self-esteem is important because feeling good about yourself can affect how you act. A person who has high self-esteem will make friends easily, is more in control of his or her behavior, and will enjoy life more.

Body image is how someone feels about his or her own physical appearance.

For many people, especially those in their early teens, body image can be closely linked to self-esteem. That's because as kids develop into teens, they care more about how others see them.
What Influences a Person's Self-Esteem?
Puberty

Some teens struggle with their self-esteem when they begin puberty because the body goes through many changes. These changes, combined with a natural desire to feel accepted, mean it can be tempting for people to compare themselves with others. They may compare themselves with the people around them or with actors and celebs they see on TV, in movies, or in magazines.

But it's impossible to measure ourselves against others because the changes that come with puberty are different for everyone. Some people start developing early; others are late bloomers. Some get a temporary layer of fat to prepare for a growth spurt, others fill out permanently, and others feel like they stay skinny no matter how much they eat. It all depends on how our genes have programmed our bodies to act.

The changes that come with puberty can affect how both girls and guys feel about themselves. Some girls may feel uncomfortable or embarrassed about their maturing bodies. Others may wish that they were developing faster. Girls may feel pressure to be thin but guys may feel like they don't look big or muscular enough.
Outside Influences

It's not just development that affects self-esteem, though. Many other factors (like media images of skinny girls and bulked-up guys) can affect a person's body image too.

Family life can sometimes influence self-esteem. Some parents spend more time criticizing their kids and the way they look than praising them, which can reduce kids' ability to develop good self-esteem.

People also may experience negative comments and hurtful teasing about the way they look from classmates and peers. Sometimes racial and ethnic prejudice is the source of such comments. Although these often come from ignorance, sometimes they can affect someone's body image and self-esteem.

Where Can I Go if I Need Help?

Sometimes low self-esteem and body image problems are too much to handle alone. A few teens may become depressed, lose interest in activities or friends — and even hurt themselves or resort to alcohol or drug abuse.

If you're feeling this way, it can help to talk to a parent, coach, religious leader, guidance counselor, therapist, or an adult friend. A trusted adult — someone who supports you and doesn't bring you down — can help you put your body image in perspective and give you positive feedback about your body, your skills, and your abilities.

If you can't turn to anyone you know, call a teen crisis hotline (check the yellow pages under social services or search online). The most important thing is to get help if you feel like your body image and self-esteem are affecting your life.

Fitness Safety

To have a fit and healthy body, you need to eat the right kind of food and exercise regularly. However, there are some people who overtrain or do not perform the exercise properly, resulting to more harm than good. To achieve your Fitness Goals and have a good physical condition, make sure to be extra careful when doing your Fitness routine. In this section, learn some tips to stay injury-free and get familiar with the common workout- and Pilates-related injuries.

Fitness Safety Tips
Fitness Safety Tips We’re always up to our toes to lose the extra pounds. The problem is, others tend to overdo it to speed up getting back into shape. Here are just a few reminders on how to keep sweating towards a healthier you – less the injury and risk factors:

* Consult a health professional.
If you’re starting out on a new Fitness routine, remember to consult a health professional to provide expert advice before you begin. This is a must to foresee possible health risks posed by the exercise, especially for those with medical conditions. It is best to seek professional guidance rather than risking your health and safety.

* Warm up and stretch.
The vital parts in every exercise routine are stretching or warming up. Often overlooked when starting out one’s exercise regimen, stretching actually prepares your muscles to the impending rigidity of your workout. A good pointer is to do a less strenuous version of the exercise you’re about to do. Warming up prevents you to feel the strain of your activity by gradually increasing your heart rate, and puts off the buildup of lactic aid that causes soreness and tiredness in your muscles. A good 5- to 10-minute warm up is necessary before you exercise.

* Drink plenty of fluids.
Dehydration is one of the common problems suffered by individuals who frequently exercise. This may pose as a serious problem as water is a vital component of the human body, making up almost 78% of our body. Make sure you hydrate by drinking plenty of fluids so that which is lost from sweating is restored back to your body. Fluids help muscle endurance, as dehydrated muscles easily get sore and tired.

* Work with a Fitness partner.
A Fitness partner or a buddy may be helpful especially if you are not exercising under the watchful eye of a Fitness Trainer. A Fitness friend can be your spotter, motivator, or warn you in case you are overtraining. Besides, working with someone is better than exercising alone. It makes all the exercise much more fun.

* Wear the right kind of clothing and footwear.
Wearing the wrong shoe is usually the common cause of exercise injuries. Make sure that you’re wearing the right shoe size, and provide much needed support for your feet. Appropriate clothing is also a must. Wear comfortable clothes that are quick to dry and allow you to move freely during your regimen.

* Know your limitations.
Most of us tend to overdo our Fitness regimen just to shed off those extra calories we have gained. Try resting for a day in between your Fitness regimen to allow your muscles and body to recover. Muscle soreness and discomfort may lead to burnout and you may have to give up on your regimen all too quickly.

Common Fitness & Workout Injuries
Common Fitness & Workout Injuries A lot of people dread to exercise because of the pain it brings them. They are the ones who are made to believe that if there is no pain, there is no gain, which shouldn't be the case. Sure, Fitness Exercises can be pretty exhausting but these shouldn't be painful. If it starts to feel that way, then there is something wrong. In this section, get familiar with the different injuries related to working out:

Pulled/Strained Muscles
This may be caused by one or both of these things: not doing warm-up exercises and not stretching. If you fail to do warm-up exercises, you are surely asking for trouble. Warming up is done to prepare your muscles for the task ahead of you.

Meanwhile, Stretching helps loosen up your muscles so that they can be flexible enough for the Fitness Exercise that you will do.

Lower Back Pain
This usually happens when you often do an exercise that uses the muscles on your lower back intensively, like Running. Another cause is lifting a heavy weight without bending your knees.

To avoid this, try doing exercises that strengthen your lower back and abdomen. Take a day off from the activity that causes it so the pain will not get worse.

Ice and gentle stretching can do the job of easing the pain. Consult your doctor about it especially if the pain persists. It may be a sign of a more serious injury.

Knee Pain
Pain in the knees can be from a variety of causes. But this type of injury can put your Fitness life at risk especially if you are a runner. One way to avoid knee pain is by not overusing your knees.

Cross training involves low-impact training that helps prevent overuse injuries. So if you're a runner, for instance, you can avoid injuries due to overuse by going swimming. Doing so will lessen the chances of injuries such as pain on your knees and lower back.


To avoid these injuries, follow these simple guidelines: warm up and stretch, cool down after you exercise, do not lift too much weight immediately, and take some time to rest and let your body heal. By following these rules, your chances of getting injured are minimized and you become insured of being able to exercise for a longer time.

Pilates & Back Pain - Common Pilates Injuries to Avoid
Written by Super Member: jenpilates


Pilates & Back Pain - Common Pilates Injuries to Avoid Because of the increasing popularity of Pilates, there seems to be more complaints of Pilates and back pain.

Why are there so many Pilates back injuries all of a sudden? There are many reasons for Pilates back injuries - some of which are due to overcrowded classes and inexperienced teachers. Because of the complexity and focus needed to execute the movements properly, if they are not cued just right and without proper warm-up, you could wind up hurting yourself.

There are many different hybrid types of Pilates classes popping up and people are joining them, thinking they are learning the classical movements. Pilates on the ball, Pilates with the bar and Yogilates are just a few that combine other forms of exercise that you may just not be ready for.

How can you avoid Pilates and back pain? Take a look at some of the most common Pilates exercises that may contribute to back pain.

* Imprinting the Spine: When you imprint the spine into your mat, this means you are pressing the spine or back into the mat.
This exercise can cause compression on the discs of the spine.

Better Option: Neutral Spine (using the natural curvature of the spine) is the only place where the muscles can work safely and effectively to support the spine in all movements.

* Roll-Up: Most people use momentum to do the roll-up.
This exercise can cause Pilates lower back injuries when done repetitively and with tight hip flexors and weak core muscles.

Better Option: Use a mini ball at the lower back to help support the back as you roll into it only halfway down.

* Swimming and Swan Dive: Lying on your stomach with arms and legs extended.
These exercises, when lifting the arms and legs, can cause the back to hyperextend and cause excessive disc compression.

Better Option: Draw the abdominals up off the mat and extend one arm and opposite leg, keeping the head down on the mat.

* Rolling: Rolling like a ball is supposed to be gentle and like a massaging action.
If you have Osteoporosis, this exercise can cause fractures of the spine if done too aggressively. Also, by throwing the head and not engaging the abdominal muscles, it can cause compression of the lower back as well as whiplash in the neck.

Better Option: Practice just balancing on your tailbone - sitting up or lying down - hugging your knees and rocking gently back and forth without rolling up to a balance.

* Leg Circles: Lying on your back with one leg at 90-degree angle and the other straight on the mat.
If you have tight hamstrings, keeping both legs straight, can pull excessively on the lower back and not allow you to effectively keep the tailbone down and use the abdominal muscles to stabilize the body.

Better Option: Bend the leg you are circling so the spine can relax into its neutral position and then the torso is better able to stay anchored, making the exercise more effective.

Pre-natal Guidelines for the Athletic Mom
Written by Super Member: Julio Salado, NSCA-CPT


Pre-natal Guidelines for the Athletic Mom It is recommended that individuals consult a physician before starting a fitness program.


This section covers some basic guidelines for pregnant women who have participated in a long-term physical training program prior to being pregnant. Women who led a more sedentary lifestyle prior to their pregnancy should first seek assistance from a health professional. If this is your first pregnancy, you should get your doctor’s approval before beginning any exercise program.

IMPORTANT NOTE: The first trimester is a very crucial time for the fetus. The fetus is unable to regulate its own body temperature to that of the mother. During this trimester, pregnant athletes should avoid exercising in hot conditions and for duration that exceeds 60 minutes.

Consistency of your training program is very important. Three to five times per week is sufficient. This includes any physical activity which is done in 25 minutes or more.

Heart Rate: You want to be about 60%-70% of your resting heart rate (non-athletes should not exceed 140BPMs). You should take your pulse during your training. You may use a Heart Rate Monitor to detect your heartbeat per minute. Please note: Heart rate will NOT be 100% accurate due to the physiological changes occurring in your first/second trimester. More importantly, your perceived rate of exertion is key (stay within a comfort zone). You will want to be mindful of your internal temperature and levels of stress.

Hydration: You must drink water throughout the session. Your urine should appear diluted and almost clear as water. Hyperthermia should be avoided.

Right Breathing: Focus on 'diaphragmatic breathing'. Heavy emphasis should be placed on breathing in through the nose (simultaneously expanding belly) and exhaling through the mouth (simultaneously drawing in navel). You should never hold your breath throughout any exercise.

Aerobic Training: You should continue to build up your heart and lung capacity/conditioning. This may be done through circuit training e.g. swimming, walking, stationary cycle, Yoga or low-impact aerobic classes. No high-impact exercises should be performed.

Strength Training: It is very important to continue strength training for your bone density, muscular conditioning, and overall health. Your training should focus more on functional exercises or movements that can be utilized in your daily activities.

Note: Form is extremely important. Strive for quality, not quantity of exercises. Heavy loading of weights is not necessary.

Posture: You should begin to minimize long durations of exercises on your back due to blood circulation and decrease of oxygen for your fetus. One to two minutes in a supine position is a good time frame. After the first trimester, you will need to modify your exercises and stop supine or exercises on your back. Lastly, you will also need to minimize standing exercises during your third trimester.

Stretches: We do not want to stretch to maximum tension or perform ballistic stretches. Joint laxity increases during pregnancy.

Re-assess/stop training if you have any of the following during or after your workout. I strongly suggest seeking medical attention if you experience any of the following:

* Vaginal bleeding
* Dizziness
* Nausea/Headache
* Chest pain
* Muscle weakness/Decreased balance
* Difficulty walking
* Calf pain or swelling
* Pre-term labor
* Decreased fetal movement
* Amniotic fluid leakage

Concern for the mother
Hypoglycemia: Your blood sugar levels can drastically drop during your pre-natal training. Monitor your food consumption and eat the appropriate amount of calories for you and your baby.

All programs should also include a cool-down phase and SMR Foam Roller. You should not foam roll over varicose veins or areas of swelling such as in the calf muscle.


This is a exciting time for you and staying active will help ensure a safe and healthy pregnancy.

Gym Ethics
Gym Ethics A lot of people are going to the gym to exercise and stay fit. This can help people to keep motivated since other people in the gym are also trying to reach the same Fitness goal.

Just like in any other place, there are unspoken rules or Gym Ethics that everyone should follow when going to the gym. These guidelines are simple and yet there are some who neglect them. For safety purposes and to have a harmonious relationship with like-minded people in the gym, keep these tips in mind:

* Wear clean and appropriate Gym Clothes. It is important to keep yourself clean at all times. Since you will be sweating a lot, make sure to bring a towel.

* Use a towel to clean all pieces of gym equipment after you use them.

* Put the weights, Dumbbells, and Barbells on their proper places. This can help avoid certain accidents such as tripping over weights that are not placed on the right places.

* Keep your voice down. Bear in mind that other people want to concentrate on what they are doing.

* Respect other people's personal space.

* Be considerate of others. Never criticize and do not interrupt others especially when they are lifting weights. If all the machines are being used and you have been using one for quite a while, give someone else a chance to use the machine. Also, it is better to avoid giving unsolicited advice. Ask first if there is anything that you can help him/her with.

* Be friendly to the staff and other people in the gym.


Follow the do's and don'ts in a gym so other people will not get annoyed because of your bad behavior. Even if the gym does not place reminders of what you should and should not do, be sensitive to others so everyone can have a pleasant experience while shedding those unwanted pounds.




There are many pieces of equipment that are specifically designed for your Fitness needs. In general, it is a matter of preference or need. Use only what is suitable to the kind of Fitness exercise that you do.

Citcuit training section

Circuit training is an efficient and challenging form of conditioning. It works well for developing strength, endurance (both aerobic and anaerobic), flexibility and coordination.

Its versatility has made it popular with the general public right through to elite athletes. For sports men and women, it can be used during the closed season and early pre-season to help develop a solid base of fitness and prepare the body for more stressful subsequent training.

A well-designed circuit can help to correct the imbalances that occur in any sport played to a high level. It can also be one of the best types of training for improving strength endurance – be it for a sport such as soccer or a classic endurance event like the triathlon.

If you haven't quite reached "elite athlete" status yet, circuit training is superb for general fitness and caters for a wide variety of fitness levels. A great time saver, it can be a refreshing and fun change from the more monotonous types of exercise.

The articles in this section of the website cover a wide variety of circuits for different performance outcomes. Circuit training in itself is not a form of exercise per se, but the way an exercise session is structured. Routines can be developed purely for strength development or for improving endurance or some combination of the two.

Circuit classes often seen in gyms and boot camps typically consist of about ten exercises stations completed for 60 seconds in sequence with 30-60 seconds rest between. While this is a great structure for some individuals it’s only one of many potential circuit programs and may not be the best approach for endurance athletes for example.

Circuit Training Articles

How to Design a Circuit Training Program
Circuit training can be used for different performance outcomes. Changing the time spent at each station and the rest intervals significantly alters the way the body will adapt to training. This articles covers all the basic guidelines to develop the most suitable circuit training routine for your particular needs…

Circuits for General, All-Round Fitness
These sample circuits are an effective, time-efficient way to develop all-round fitness. Additionally, they require little or no expensive exercise equipment...

Circuits for Strength Endurance (Short-Term)
Many athletes require good strength endurance to perform well in their sport. These circuits are designed for “short-term” strength endurance i.e. prolonged games such as soccer and filed hockey that consist of repetitive bursts of high intensity activity…

Circuits for Strength Endurance (Long-Term)
Athletes such as distance runners, cyclists and swimmers can also benefit from circuit training. Here are some sample programs...

Twenty Circuit Training Exercises
Why not use these exercises to develop your own circuit based on your own needs and the equipment you have available?

Comprehensive Workouts & Training Plans To Get You Super-Fit!
We have developed a huge range of complete training programs and workouts... all based around particular sports, events or outcomes. So whether it's a bodyweight workout for weight loss you're after, a dumbbell routine for strength and power or a sport-specific plan for your athletic endeavours, you'll easily find a workout to suit you!

Energy Systems in Sport & Exercise


Understanding energy systems underpins the study of exercise and the effect it has on the human body.

Bioenergetics... or the study of energy flow through living systems – is usually one of the first chapters in any good exercise physiology text. But the current model of human energy systems is being challenged...

Recent research and practical experience expose its limitations, in particular with regard to fatigue.

This article outlines the three basic energy pathways, their interactions with one another and their relevance to different sporting activities. It finishes with a brief look at some of the more recent research and subsequent new models of human energy dynamics that have been proposed as a result.

ATP – The Body’s Energy Currency

Food as energy Energy is required for all kinds of bodily processes including growth and development, repair, the transport of various substances between cells and of course, muscle contraction. It is this last area that Exercise Scientists are most interested in when they talk about energy systems.

Whether it's during a 26-mile marathon run or one explosive movement like a tennis serve, skeletal muscle is powered by one and only one compound... adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (2). However, the body stores only a small quantity of this 'energy currency' within the cells and it’s enough to power just a few seconds of all-out exercise (5). So the body must replace or resynthesize ATP on an ongoing basis. Understanding how it does this is the key to understanding energy systems.

An ATP molecule consists of adenosine and three (tri) inorganic phosphate groups. When a molecule of ATP is combined with water (a process called hydrolysis), the last phosphate group splits away and releases energy. The molecule of adenosine triphosphate now becomes adenosine diphosphate or ADP (2).

Energy is measured in calories To replenish the limited stores of ATP, chemical reactions add a phosphate group back to ADP to create ATP. This process is called phosphorylation. If this occurs in the presence of oxygen it is labelled aerobic metabolism or oxidative phosphorylation. If it occurs without oxygen it is labelled anaerobic metabolism (2).

Energy Sources to Replenish ATP

Several energy sources or substrates are available which can be used to power the production of ATP. One of these substrates, like existing ATP, is stored inside the cell and is called creatine phosphate.

Creatine for energy Creatine Phosphate
Creatine phosphate is readily available to the cells and rapidly produces ATP. It also exists in limited concentrations and it is estimated that there is only about 100g of ATP and about 120g of creatine phosphate stored in the body, mostly within the muscles. Together ATP and creatine phosphate are called the ‘high-energy’ phosphogens (1).

Fat
The other substrates that can the body can use to produce ATP include fat, carbohydrate and protein. Fat is stored predominantly as adipose tissue throughout the body and is a substantial energy reservoir. Fat is less accessible for cellular metabolism as it must first be reduced from its complex form, triglyceride, to the simpler components of glycerol and free fatty acids. So although fat acts as a vast stockpile of fuel, energy release is too slow for very intense activity (5).

Carbohydrate

Unlike fat, carbohydrate is not stored in peripheral deposits throughout the body. At rest, carbohydrate is taken up by the muscles and liver and converted into glycogen. Glycogen can be used to form ATP and in the liver it can be converted into glucose and transported to the muscles via the blood. A heavy training session can deplete carbohydrate stores in the muscles and liver, as can a restriction in dietary intake. Carbohydrate can release energy much more quickly than fat (5).

Protein
Protein is used as a source of energy, particularly during prolonged activity, however it must first be broken down into amino acids before then being converted into glucose. As with, fat, protein cannot supply energy at the same rate as carbohydrate. The rate at which is energy is released from the substrates is determined by a number of factors. For example, if there are large amounts of one type of fuel available, the body may rely more on this source than on others. The mass action effect is used to describe this phenomenon (5).

The Three Energy Systems

There are three separate energy systems through which ATP can be produced. A number of factors determine which of these energy systems is chosen, such as exercise intensity for example.
The ATP-PCr System

ATP and creatine phosphate (also called phosphocreatine or PCr for short) make up the ATP-PCr system. PCr is broken down releasing a phosphate and energy, which is then used to rebuild ATP. Recall, that ATP is ‘rebuilt’ by adding a phosphate to ADP in a process called phosphorylation. The enzyme that controls the break down of PCr is called creatine kinase (5).

How energy is transformed The ATP-PCr energy system can operate with or without oxygen but because it doesn’t rely on the presence of oxygen it said to be anaerobic. During the first 5 seconds of exercise regardless of intensity, the ATP-PCr is relied on almost exclusively. ATP concentrations last only a few seconds with PCr buffering the drop in ATP for another 5-8 seconds or so. Combined, the ATP-PCr system can sustain all-out exercise for 3-15 seconds and it is during this time that the potential rate for power output is at its greatest (1).

If activity continues beyond this immediate period, the body must rely on another energy system to produce ATP…

The Glycolytic System

Glycolysis literally means the breakdown (lysis) of glucose and consists of a series of enzymatic reactions. Remember that the carbohydrates we eat supply the body with glucose, which can be stored as glycogen in the muscles or liver for later use.

The end product of glycolysis is pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid can then be either funnelled through a process called the Krebs cycle (see the Oxidative System below) or converted into lactic acid. Traditionally, if the final product was lactic acid, the process was labelled anaerobic glycolysis and if the final product remained as pyruvate the process was labelled aerobic glycolysis.

However, oxygen availability only determines the fate of the end product and is not required for the actual process of glycolysis itself. In fact, oxygen availability has been shown to have little to do with which of the two end products, lactate or pyruvate is produced. Hence the terms aerobic meaning with oxygen and anaerobic meaning without oxygen become a bit misleading (5).

Alternative terms that are often used are fast glycolysis if the final product is lactic acid and slow glycolysis for the process that leads to pyruvate being funnelled through the Krebs cycle. As its name would suggest the fast glycolitic system can produce energy at a greater rate than slow glycolysis. However, because the end product of fast glycolysis is lactic acid, it can quickly accumulate and is thought to lead to muscular fatigue (1).

The role of lactic acid in energy systems


The contribution of the fast glycolytic system increases rapidly after the initial 10 seconds of exercise. This also coincides with a drop in maximal power output as the immediately available phosphogens, ATP and PCr, begin to run out. By about 30 seconds of sustained activity the majority of energy comes from fast glycolysis (2).

At 45 seconds of sustained activity there is a second decline in power output (the first decline being after about 10 seconds). Activity beyond this point corresponds with a growing reliance on the…

The Oxidative System

The oxidative system consists four processes to produce ATP:

*

Slow glycolysis (aerobic glycolysis)
*

Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle)
*

Electron transport chain
*

Beta oxidation

Slow glycolysis is exactly the same series of reactions as fast glycolysis that metabolise glucose to form two ATPs. The difference, however, is that the end product pyruvic acid is converted into a substance called acetyl coenzyme A rather than lactic acid (5). Following glycolysis, further ATP can be produced by funnelling acetyl coenzyme A through the…

Krebs Cycle
The Krebs cycle is a complex series of chemical reactions that continues the oxidization of glucose that was started during glycolysis. Acetyl coenzyme A enters the Krebs cycle and is broken down in to carbon dioxide and hydrogen allowing more two more ATPs to be formed. However, the hydrogen produced in the Krebs cycle plus the hydrogen produced during glycolysis, left unchecked would cause cells to become too acidic (2). So hydrogen combines with two enzymes called NAD and FAD and is transported to the…

Electron Transport Chain
Hydrogen is carried to the electron transport chain, another series of chemical reactions, and here it combines with oxygen to form water thus preventing acidification. This chain, which requires the presence of oxygen, also results in 34 ATPs being formed (2).

Beta Oxidation
Unlike glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain can metabolise fat as well as carbohydrate to produce ATP. Lipolysis is the term used to describe the breakdown of fat (triglycerides) into the more basic units of glycerol and free fatty acids (2).

Before these free fatty acids can enter the Krebs cycle they must undergo a process of beta oxidation... a series of reactions to further reduce free fatty acids to acetyl coenzyme A and hydrogen. Acetyl coenzyme A can now enter the Krebs cycle and from this point on, fat metabolism follows the same path as carbohydrate metabolism (5).

Fat Metabolism

So to recap, the oxidative system can produce ATP through either fat (fatty acids) or carbohydrate (glucose). The key difference is that complete combustion of a fatty acid molecule produces significantly more acetyl coenzyme A and hydrogen (and hence ATP) compared to a glucose molecule. However, because fatty acids consist of more carbon atoms than glucose, they require more oxygen for their combustion (2).

So if your body is to use fat for fuel it must have sufficient oxygen supply to meet the demands of exercise. If exercise is intense and the cardiovascular system is unable to supply cells with oxygen quickly enough, carbohydrate must be used to produce ATP. Put another way, if you run out of carbohydrate stores (as in long duration events), exercise intensity must reduce as the body switches to fat as its primary source of fuel.

Protein Metabolism
Protein is thought to make only a small contribution (usually no more 5%) to energy production and is often overlooked. However, amino acids, the building blocks of protein, can be either converted into glucose or into other intermediates used by the Krebs cycle such as acetyl coenzyme A. Protein may make a more significant contribution during very prolonged activity, perhaps as much as 18% of total energy requirements (1).

The oxidative system as a whole is used primarily during rest and low-intensity exercise. At the start of exercise it takes about 90 seconds for the oxidative system to produce its maximal power output and training can help to make this transition earlier (1).

Beyond this point the Krebs cycle supplies the majority of energy requirements but slow glycolysis still makes a significant contribution. In fact, slow glycolysis is an important metabolic pathway even during events lasting several hours or more (2).

Energy Systems & Training

Each of the three energy systems can generate power to different capacities and varies within individuals. Best estimates suggest that the ATP-PCR systme can generate energy at a rate of roughly 36 kcal per minute. Glycolysis can generate energy only half as quickly at about 16 kcal per minute. The oxidative system has the lowest rate of power output at about 10 kcal per minute (4).

The capacity to generate power of each the three energy systems can vary with training. The ATP-PCr and glycolytic pathways may change by only 10-20% with training. The oxidative system seems to be far more trainable although genetics play a limiting role here too. VO2max, or aerobic power can be increased by as much as 50% but this is usually in untrained, sedentary individuals (4).

Energy Systems Used in Sports


The three energy systems do not work independently of one another. From very short, very intense exercise, to very light, prolonged activity, all three energy systems make a contribution however, one or two will usually predominate (5).

Two factors of any activity carried out affect energy systems more than any other variable – they are the intensity and duration of exercise. Here is a list of sports and approximately how the each of the energy systems contributes to meet the physical demands:

Energy systems in various sports


A New Model for Energy Systems?

In the year 2000, Noakes and colleagues (3) questioned the classical model of energy systems. Their argument was based on the limitations this model has when it comes to explaining fatigue. In particular, the general concept that fatigue develops only when the cardiovascular system's capacity to supply oxygen falls behind demand (therefore initiating anaerobic metabolism) is seen as overly simplistic. More specifically, their argument centered around 5 key issues:

i) The heart and not skeletal muscle would be affected first by anaerobic metabolism.
ii) No study has definitively found a presence of anaerobic metabolism and hypoxia (lack of oxygen) in skeletal muscle during maximal exercise.
iii) The traditional model is unable to explain why fatigue ensues during prolonged exercise, at altitude and in hot conditions.
iv) Cardiorespiratory and metabolic measures such as VO2max and lactate threshold are only modest predictors of performance.

Undoubtedly, fatigue is a complex subject that can result from a range of physical and psychological factors. In an attempt to produce a more holistic explanation, Noakes developed a model that consisted of five sub-models:

i) The classical 'cardiovascular / anaerobic' model as it stands now.
ii) The energy supply / energy depletion model.
iii) The muscle recruitment (central fatigue) / muscle power model.
iv) The biomechanical model.
v) The psychological / motivational model.

Essentially this new model of energy systems recognizes what coaches have witnessed for decades... that performance and fatigue is multifactoral and complex. It adds strength to the synergistic and holistic approach to sport usually found in the most successful athletes.

THE BEST ARM EXERCISES
Are well-toned arms the latest must-have body part? First Lady Michelle Obama's shapely arms caused a sensation in February after she showed them off in sleeveless dresses in her official White House portrait and during her husband's first address to Congress.

According to news reports, Michelle Obama stays in shape with three 90-minute exercise sessions each week, sometimes hitting the gym at 4:30 a.m. to make sure she doesn't miss a workout.

If you're ready to get your own arms buff enough to go bare, what are the best arm exercises for strengthening and toning? WebMD asked fitness experts to share some of their tips for building stronger, tighter arm muscles.
The Benefits of Upper Body Strength

Arm toning and strengthening exercises are important throughout life, says Dan Agresti, exercise physiologist and owner of ProActive Health and Fitness in Denver. And the benefits go way beyond looking good in a tank top.

Life is a lot better when you're strong," says Agresti. "It's fun to know I can do just about any task."

Having upper body strength also helps us combat the physical pitfalls of our culture.

"We live in such a flexed-posture society, says Lori Incledon, athletic trainer and author of Strength Training for Women.

Being hunched over the computer, in front of the TV, and at the steering wheels of our cars takes a toll, she says. The shoulder girdle becomes stretched, the chest muscles get tighter, and we set ourselves up for decreased range of motion and potential injury.

"We're never going to be able to reach for the cup on the highest shelf anymore" if we don't balance out our muscles with exercise, says Incledon, of Chandler, Ariz.
Arm Toning Tips: The Whole-Body Prescription

As we all know by now, you cannot spot-reduce an area. So we need to think about the bigger picture. "The emphasis should be on the entire body -- and cardio and diet," says Mark Nutting, fitness director at Saco Sport & Fitness in Saco, Maine.

Diet and nutrition are a huge part of the equation, says Agresti. If you work the arms and don't see results, look at your whole program: "Underneath that fat is the most beautiful set of arms you've ever seen," he says.

Nutting, Agresti, and Incledon all use multi-muscle, multi-joint exercises for their clients, so they work more muscle at one time, thus increasing the calorie burn.

"We need to train the body the way it was designed to work," says Agresti. Otherwise, "there's not a lot of crossover into the real world."

You need to use some sort of resistance to really strengthen the upper body and tone the arms, whether it's weights, bands, machines, cables, grocery bags, or your own body weight.

You also need to be willing to push yourself a little, says Agresti.

"If you want to tone and shape your arms, you have to use a bigger weight," Agresti says. "I don't think women tend to push themselves with sufficient weight and to the level of effort and fatigue necessary."

It's all about motivation, says Agresti. "Could you have done more? For $100,000 could you have doubled the reps?" If your response is 'You bet,' he says, you're cheating yourself.

Bulking Up?

Women sometimes ask if the workouts will lead to too much bulking up. If you feel a little bigger at first, it may not be your imagination.

"When you first start lifting, there's a big influx of carbohydrates and water to that area," as your body attempts to protect itself from something it's not accustomed to, says Incledon. "It's a beginner thing. At first, you'll get a bit more of a bulky feeling, but after a month, the body regulates."

Another reason you may look bulkier is because you're building muscle under a layer of fat. Once the fat comes off, the bulkiness gives way to the lean muscle underneath.

And you don't have to treadmill yourself to death to shed that layer of flab, says Incledon.

"It's a myth that the only way you can affect body composition is by cardiovascular exercise," she says. In a sense, "anything you do that is exercise is cardiovascular, because you have to work your heart and lungs to lift a weight."

If you're crunched for time (and who isn't?), work smart: Do exercises that use lots of body parts at once, minimize rest periods, and work to fatigue.
4 Multi-Tasking Arm Exercises

Try these four multi-joint, multi-muscle exercises from Agresti, Nutting, and Incledon to develop beautifully toned arms and upper body strength.



1. Push-up/Tricep Push-up

* Prepare: Start on your hands and knees, fingers spread, wrists under shoulders, knees under hips. Extend one leg back to rest on your toes, then the other, forming a straight line from your heels to your shoulders. Keep the butt and ab muscles tight, the ribs knitted together, and the shoulders sliding down the back. Be sure the neck is in line with the spine (don't hang your head or jut your chin out.)
* Perform: Bending the elbows, slowly lower the body as far down as you can while maintaining proper form. Then, straightening (but not locking) the arms, come back to the starting position. Repeat to fatigue (strive for 12-15 repetitions).
* For a challenge: Do the push-up with the elbows pointing back and close to your sides to emphasize the triceps.
* Working muscles: Pectorals (chest), deltoids (shoulders), triceps.

2. Reverse Plank Pull-up

* Prepare: Using an assisted machine like the Smith machine at your gym, set the bar about midway up and stand under it. Using a palms-up grip, grab the bar, aligning your shoulders with your wrists. Then walk your feet out away from you until your body is in a reverse plank, hanging in a straight line, with your heels on the floor.
* Perform: Bending your elbows slowly bring your body up to the bar and straightening your elbows, lower back down. Repeat to fatigue (strive for 12-15 repetitions).
* For a challenge: The lower the angle of your body, the tougher the exercise. Beginners should work at a higher angle off the ground.
* Working muscles: Latissimus dorsi (back), deltoids, biceps.
4 Multi-Tasking Arm Exercises continued...

3. Bicep Curl/Shoulder Press Combo

* Prepare: Holding a pair of free weights or standing on an exercise band and holding it with the palms face up, stand tall with feet hip-width apart, abs tight.
* Perform: Lift the weights or band toward your shoulders (flexing elbows), turn the palms to face out and continue pushing the weight or band over your head in a fluid, continuous motion. Then reverse the motion, bring the weight down to your shoulders with the palms out, then turning them to fully extend the elbows, bringing the arms to the starting position.
* For a challenge: Chances are, you can use more weight while doing this combination move, so try it. Try not to rest between each repetition. Repeat to fatigue (strive for 12-15 repetitions).
* Working muscles: Biceps, deltoids, triceps.

4. Tricep Dips

* Prepare: Sitting with your hands on the edge of a sturdy bench, fingers pointing toward you, slowly walk your feet out in front of you and take your bottom off the bench.
* Perform: Slowly lower and lift your body weight, being sure to fully extend the arm and maintaining perfect posture throughout (do not roll the shoulders in). Whether your knees are bent at 90 degrees (easier) or legs are straight out (harder), be sure to lower yourself straight down (keeping a 1-inch gap between your back and the bench for the entire range of motion) and not in a swinging motion toward your feet. Repeat to fatigue (strive for 12-15 repetitions).
* Challenge: Try this with one heel stacked on the other.
* Working muscles: Triceps, deltoids.

Nice ass in 7 steps

It’s always behind you—but your backside can affect whether you are fashion-forward, fit and toned, or looking out-of-shape and lumpy-dumpy.

Evolutionary design:
The size and shape of your behind is part of your physical condition and it does influence your sexual appeal. Throughout most of western history, women were expected to be curvy, soft and voluptuous, characteristics that are harbingers of fertility. With the advent of jogging and highly competitive sports, today our ideal of beauty and fashion for women may be thin, toned and tall; and for men, muscled, toned and strong. But whatever your subjective preference may be, Paul Sorace, a trainer from New Jersey says that, “At the very least, 99% of the women I train want to work with the glutes.”


STEP 1
The Dream:
Are we realistic in thinking about having round, chiseled and lifted derrieres or is this just a pipe dream? In reality, a large part of our shape is inherited and depends on our family genes. And, unfortunately there is no such thing as "spot-reducing" so if your backside is too big, you are probably big all over.

The Plan:
But there are things we can do to tone, lift, and camouflage our butts to look great in clothes and to feel more fit overall. To begin, alternate doing Pilates (core-building exercises), Yoga (balance and stretch workouts), strength-training (read this as weight-lifting) along with a dose of ballet barre (targeted stretching). Two or three times a week with any of these with a rest in between is optimum.


STEP 2
May I Suggest:
First warm up by working-up a sweat aerobically.
The glutes are large motor muscles and every time you take a step, you use glutes. Consequently, walking is great and, if you can tackle hills or take the incline on a treadmill, even better. Hiking is another workout that requires leg energy and really eats the calories. Experts say that a 140-pound person can burn about 390 calories an hour hiking. Another great glute warm-up is biking, which uses every muscle in your thighs, hips and butt. Running just naturally propels those legs and makes you feel good, eliminates stress. Not everyone can kickbox, but complex punches will target your abs as well as your trunk.

Stair machines, and arc or elliptical trainers are great butt-shaping equipment and, for variety, don’t forget in-line skating.

Tip: Walking backwards helps to target those rear end muscles (try walking backwards uphill!)


STEP 3
The Best Exercises:
In order to physically exercise these muscles, you need to apply strenuous resistance throughout the full range of motion of your hip joint—from a fully flexed position to a fully extended position that covers an arc of up to 165 degrees. Certain machines will do this but freehand exercises with no equipment, using just the force of gravity against your muscles will do the same thing; and you can do them privately and cheaply.

For example, in a sitting position, an ordinary soccer ball can do some of the things a machine can. Simply sit comfortably on the floor with your legs out in front of you, your hands providing support extended behind, palms flat, fingers extended. Place the ball between your knees and while squeezing your glutes, also squeeze the ball between your knees. Count to ten slowly and repeat. Do as many repetitions you can until you fatigue. (This can also be done sitting in a chair.)


STEP4
The Frog:
Another exercise to target those areas of resistance is "the frog." It's just like its name. You assume a frog position by squatting down. Make sure that your knees are not pitched forward over your toes. You can balance using the tips of your hands. Now jack your hips in an up and down motion s-l-o-w-l-y and in a controlled way using your thighs and glutes to raise and lower your rear end. This is done deliberately and with caution. You will develop quite a heat but do as many as you can to fatigue. (There is a YouTube video link below to show you proper form.)


STEP 5
Warmed-up:
Now that you are warm, you can work on the target toning exercises that rely on gravity and working your own weight against itself. The best are squats, ball squats against the wall, and sumo squats.

Basic squat: squat as if you were sitting in a chair but before you hit the "seat" bring yourself back up (you can use a chair to begin). Keep a flat back. Repeat with deliberation. The addition of small weights held in each hand will augment this exercise later on.

Lunges: (one version)
Standing front and back lunges and stepping lunges are great too (concentrate on long steps no farther than 90 degrees). Do this: Try lunges using >steps< and you will help to protect your knees. Stand a foot or so in front of a set of steps. Pick the third step as your target. Lunge forward placing your arch and heel area on the top of the step; push and then return the leg. Do the other side. Alternate and work both hips and legs until fatigued.(Correct form with the stepping variety is key.)



STEP 6
The bridge:
The bridge is a hard exercise, really defining your booty against gravity. To begin, lay down on your back. Bend both knees and place feet flat on the floor with a wide stance no larger than your hips. Now slowly lift your vertebrae off the floor and arch your back using your glutes to help pull you up. (It looks like a backward bend at completion.) Repeat as often as you comfortably can.

Wall walk:
Another old-fashioned version is to use the lower half of your body to >walk up the wall.< Lay in front of the wall, feet facing. Scooch up until your legs bend. Lay back down. Now using your feet, walk up the wall using both legs until you are extended; your shoulders will support you on the floor. At the top, walk back down.

Other good exercises to lookup and try: hip lifts, prone ball leg lifts, and side leg raises. For correct form: videos and examples of these exercises can be found in the links below.



STEP7
Inner Thighs:
Don't neglect the inner thighs as toning the inside of your legs helps to support the rest of your behind. A great exercise for this is the crab. (For this you will need to purchase an exercise band.) Tie the band around both ankles. Now squat slightly and take four steps to the right, extending the band tautly. Your step should be at least a full 12-inch step. Feel the slight pull on both the inside and outside of your thigh. Now take four steps to the left to complete the move. Do as many sets of these as you can before you tired.


feel

Hips, Butt and Thighs

The exercises below will challenge your hips, butt and thighs in a whole new way. Many of these moves involve using paper plates to add intensity to the moves. As always, check with your doctor if you have any injuries or medical issues and avoid any exercise that causes pain or discomfort. You'll find instructions and tips at the end of the page.
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Side Lunge Slide
Stand with feet hip-width apart, left foot resting on a paper plate. Bend the right leg while sliding the left foot to the side, torso upright and abs in. Slowly slide left foot back to starting position, repeating 8-12 times. Switch legs and repeat for 2-3 sets.




Lunge Slide
Stand with feet hip-width apart, left foot resting on a paper plate. Bend the right leg while sliding the left foot back into a lunge position, keeping the right knee behind the toe, torso upright and abs in. Slowly slide left foot back to starting position and repeat 8-12 times. Switch legs and repeat on each leg for 2-3 sets.




Front One-Legged Squat
Stand on a step or small platform. Lift left leg out in front of step and bend the right leg, bringing the toe of the left foot to the floor. Touch the floor lightly and keep the knee of the bent leg in line with toes. Straighten the right leg and repeat 8-12 times. Switch legs and repeat for 2-3 sets.




Chair Squat
Stand in front of a chair with feet hip-width apart, abs in and torso straight. Slowly bend your knees and lower and until you're almost touching your butt to the chair. Hold for 2-3 seconds, knees behind the toes, and straighten. Repeat for 12-16 reps, 2-3 sets.




Heel Drops with Leg Extension
Stand on step or platform with left leg on the step, right leg hanging off the side. Bend the left leg and lower the right foot towards the floor (a few inches). Straighten the left leg and bring the right leg out to the side, foot flexed, in a leg extension. Repeat 8-12 times, switch legs for 2-3 sets.


Hip Extension
On a flat or inclined step or platform, lie facedown with hips on the edge of the step, legs straight out behind you with toes resting lightly on the floor. Squeeze the glutes and hamstrings and straighten the legs until they are level with the hips. Hold for 2-3 seconds, and lower letting toes lightly touch the floor. Repeat for 2-3 sets of 8-12 repetitions.

Exercise tips and instructions:

* For Beginners: Do one set of 8-12 repetitions of each exercise with light weight or no weight 2-3 times a week, with at least one day of rest between workouts
* For Intermediates: Do 1-2 sets of 8-12 repetitions of each exercise using light-medium weights, 2-3 times a week with at least one day of rest between workouts.
* For Advanced: Do 2-3 sets of 8-12 repetitions of each exercise, using enough weight that you can ONLY complete the desired number of setps, 2-3 times a week with at least one day of rest between workouts.